5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5 From: "Kuhn, Sally" <KUHNS@xxxxxx> Smithsonian / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report 4-10 December 2024 Sally Sennert - Weekly Report Editor (kuhns@xxxxxx) URL: https://volcano.si.edu/reports_weekly.cfm <https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://volcano.si.edu/reports_weekly.cfm__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeONbV1YKFg$> New Activity/Unrest: Ahyi, United States | Dempo, Indonesia | Dukono, Indonesia | Ibu, Indonesia | Kanlaon, Philippines | Kuchinoerabujima, Japan | Reykjanes, Iceland Ongoing Activity: Copahue, Chile-Argentina | Ebeko, Russia | Great Sitkin, United States | Karymsky, Russia | Lewotobi, Indonesia | Manam, Papua New Guinea | Merapi, Indonesia | Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia | Nyamulagira, DR Congo | Reventador, Ecuador | Sabancaya, Peru | Sangay, Ecuador | Semeru, Indonesia | Sheveluch, Russia | Stromboli, Italy | Suwanosejima, Japan | Taal, Philippines The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is a cooperative project between the Smithsonian's Global Volcanism Program and the US Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards Program. Updated by 2300 UTC every Wednesday, these reports are preliminary and subject to change as events are studied in more detail. This is not a comprehensive list of all of Earth's volcanoes erupting during the week, but rather a summary of activity at volcanoes that meet criteria discussed in detail in the "Criteria and Disclaimers" section. Carefully reviewed, detailed reports about recent activity are published in issues of the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network. Note that many news agencies do not archive the articles they post on the Internet, and therefore the links to some sources may not be active. To obtain information about the cited articles that are no longer available on the Internet contact the source. New Activity/Unrest Ahyi | United States | 20.42°N, 145.03°E | Summit elev. -75 m Several plumes of discolored water surrounding Ahyi Seamount were identified in satellite images during 30 November-6 December, indicating continued low-level unrest. No significant signals were identified in data from underwater pressure sensors near Wake Island (about 2,270 km E of Ahyi), though submarine plumes are sometimes observed without clear hydroacoustic evidence of eruptive activity. The Aviation Color Code remained at Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) and the Volcano Alert Level remained at Advisory (the second lowest level on a four-level scale). Geologic Summary. Ahyi seamount is a large conical submarine volcano that rises to within 75 m of the ocean surface ~18 km SE of the island of Farallon de Pajaros in the northern Marianas. Water discoloration has been observed there, and in 1979 the crew of a fishing boat felt shocks over the summit area, followed by upwelling of sulfur-bearing water. On 24-25 April 2001 an explosive eruption was detected seismically by a station on Rangiroa Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago. The event was well constrained (+/- 15 km) at a location near the southern base of Ahyi. An eruption in April-May 2014 was detected by NOAA divers, hydroacoustic sensors, and seismic stations. Source: US Geological Survey https://www.usgs.gov/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://www.usgs.gov/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOOcNTm1dw$> Dempo | Indonesia | 4.016°S, 103.121°E | Summit elev. 3142 m The Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG) reported that there were four eruptive events at Dempo during 2024, on 27 and 31 May, then later in the year on 23 and 26 November. The event on 26 November occurred at 2031 and produced a white emissions containing ash that drifted N and NW. No additional eruptive events were recorded through 10 December. Weather conditions often prevented visual observations. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), and the public were reminded to stay 1 km away from the crater and as far as 2 km on the N flank. Geologic Summary. Dempo is a stratovolcano that rises above the Pasumah Plain of SE Sumatra. The andesitic complex has two main peaks, Gunung Dempo and Gunung Marapi, constructed near the SE rim of a 3-km-wide amphitheater open to the north. The high point of the older Gunung Dempo crater rim is slightly lower, and lies at the SE end of the summit complex. The taller Marapi cone was constructed within the older crater. Remnants of seven craters are found at or near the summit, with volcanism migrating WNW over time. The active 750 x 1,100 m active crater cuts the NW side of the Marapi cone and contains a 400-m-wide lake at the far NW end. Eruptions recorded since 1817 have been small-to-moderate explosions that produced local ashfall. Source: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM) http://vsi.esdm.go.id/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://vsi.esdm.go.id/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOPUaV2HYg$> Dukono | Indonesia | 1.6992°N, 127.8783°E | Summit elev. 1273 m The Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG) reported that the eruption at Dukono was ongoing during 4-10 December. Gray-and-white ash plumes that were sometimes dense rose as high as 3.5 km above the summit and drifted in multiple directions on 4, 6, and 10 December. Dense white, gray, and black ash plumes rose up to 4.8 km above the summit and drifted NW on 7 December and rose 500-1,000 m above the summit and drifted E on 9 December. Emissions were not observed on 5 December, but white plumes rose 100 m and drifted N on 8 December. On 11 December the hazard exclusion zone was increased to 4 km from the Malupang Warirang Crater. The Alert Level remained at Level 2 (on a scale of 1-4). Geologic Summary. Reports from this remote volcano in northernmost Halmahera are rare, but Dukono has been one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes. More-or-less continuous explosive eruptions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have occurred since 1933. During a major eruption in 1550 CE, a lava flow filled in the strait between Halmahera and the N-flank Gunung Mamuya cone. This complex volcano presents a broad, low profile with multiple summit peaks and overlapping craters. Malupang Wariang, 1 km SW of the summit crater complex, contains a 700 x 570 m crater that has also been active during historical time. Source: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM) http://vsi.esdm.go.id/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://vsi.esdm.go.id/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOPUaV2HYg$> Ibu | Indonesia | 1.488°N, 127.63°E | Summit elev. 1325 m The Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG) reported that the eruption at Ibu continued during 4-10 December. Daily gray or white-and-gray ash plumes that were often dense rose as high as 1.2 km above the summit and drifted NE, SE, and SW. Webcam images posted with the reports showed incandescence at the summit of the inner active cone. the public was advised to stay 4 km away from the active crater in all other directions. The Alert Level remained at 3 (the second highest level on a four-level scale) and the public was advised to stay 4 km away from the active crater and 5.5 km away from the N crater wall opening. Geologic Summary. The truncated summit of Gunung Ibu stratovolcano along the NW coast of Halmahera Island has large nested summit craters. The inner crater, 1 km wide and 400 m deep, has contained several small crater lakes. The 1.2-km-wide outer crater is breached on the N, creating a steep-walled valley. A large cone grew ENE of the summit, and a smaller one to the WSW has fed a lava flow down the W flank. A group of maars is located below the N and W flanks. The first observed and recorded eruption was a small explosion from the summit crater in 1911. Eruptive activity began again in December 1998, producing a lava dome that eventually covered much of the floor of the inner summit crater along with ongoing explosive ash emissions. Source: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM) http://vsi.esdm.go.id/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://vsi.esdm.go.id/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOPUaV2HYg$> Kanlaon | Philippines | 10.4096°N, 123.13°E | Summit elev. 2422 m The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) reported a continuing eruption at Kanlaon during 3-10 December and an escalation in activity on 9 December. The seismic network recorded 6-22 daily volcanic earthquakes, and sulfur dioxide emissions ranged from 1,669 to 6,432 tonnes per day. Gas-and-steam emissions that were mostly continuous and often voluminous rose 200-500 m above the summit and drifted mainly W, WSW, and SW. There were 1-6 ash emission events during 3-5 and 7-8 December, with each lasting 3-40 minutes. An explosive eruption occurred at 1503 on 9 December and lasted three minutes and 55 seconds. A voluminous ash plume rapidly rose 4 km above the crater rim and drifted WSW. Pyroclastic flows traveled 2-3.4 km down the SE flanks. The Alert Level was raised to 3 (on a scale of 0-5) and local governments were advised to evacuate residents within a 6 km radius. According to news articles ashfall was reported in 30 cities and towns across the municipalities of Negros Occidental, Guimaras, Iloilo, and Antique. A sulfur odor was noted in several barangays and in Bago City (20 km NW). Several schools in those areas suspended classes. The Disaster Response Operations Monitoring and Information Center (DROMIC) report issued on 10 December stated that 12,172 people (3,616 families) had evacuated mainly from Bago City, La Carlota City (14 km W), and La Castellana (16 km SW), with fewer people from Moises Padilla (17 km SSW), Magalion (14 km SSW), Murcia, Pontevedra, and Canlaon City (10 km ESE). There were 12,010 evacuees spread across 24 evacuation centers and 162 people were staying with friends or relatives. Geologic Summary. Kanlaon volcano (also spelled Canlaon) forms the highest point on the Philippine island of Negros. The massive andesitic stratovolcano is covered with fissure-controlled pyroclastic cones and craters, many of which are filled by lakes. The largest debris avalanche known in the Philippines traveled 33 km SW from Kanlaon. The summit contains a 2-km-wide, elongated northern caldera with a crater lake and a smaller but higher active vent, Lugud crater, to the south. Eruptions recorded since 1866 have typically consisted of phreatic explosions of small-to-moderate size that produce minor local ashfall. Sources: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOPbnFqDNQ$> ; Disaster Response Operations Monitoring and Information Center (DROMIC) https://dromic.dswd.gov.ph/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://dromic.dswd.gov.ph/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOOHB_psrw$> ; Philippine News Agency (PNA) https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1239626 <https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1239626__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOMUr72AMQ$> Kuchinoerabujima | Japan | 30.443°N, 130.217°E | Summit elev. 657 m The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) reported that the number of shallow volcanic earthquakes increased beneath Kuchinoerabujimaâ??s Furudake Crater with 30 earthquakes recorded during 5-6 December. No changes to geothermal areas located in and around both Shindake and Furudake craters were observed during field surveys conducted on 20 and 23 November as well as 3 and 5 December. Sulfur dioxide emissions were low, fluctuating between 30 and 60 tons per day in December, and no ground deformation had been detected since November 2023. The Alert Level was raised to 2 (on a scale of 1-5) at 0800 on 6 December and the public was warned to be cautious within a 1 km radius of both craters and within 2 km on the W flank of Shindake Crater. Geologic Summary. A group of young stratovolcanoes forms the eastern end of the irregularly shaped island of Kuchinoerabujima in the northern Ryukyu Islands, 15 km W of Yakushima. The Furudake, Shindake, and Noikeyama cones were erupted from south to north, respectively, forming a composite cone with multiple craters. All historical eruptions have occurred from Shindake, although a lava flow from the S flank of Furudake that reached the coast has a very fresh morphology. Frequent explosive eruptions have taken place from Shindake since 1840; the largest of these was in December 1933. Several villages on the 4 x 12 km island are located within a few kilometers of the active crater and have suffered damage from eruptions. Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOM1aK7WDA$> Reykjanes | Iceland | 63.817°N, 22.717°W | Summit elev. 140 m The Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) reported that the eruption that began on 20 November at the Sundhnúkur crater row in a location between Stóra-Skógfell and Sýlingarfell, within the Reykjanes volcanic system, likely ended on 8 December. Activity at the main cone had slowly decreased over the previous days along with tremor levels. The comparison of InSAR images acquired on 30 November and 4 December, as well as deformation data from several GPS stations, indicated that inflation had resumed at Svartsengi from the accumulation of magma beneath the region. Air pollution from volcanic gases persisted at least through 6 December even though activity at the crater was declining. Incandescence at the cone was last observed in webcam images at around 0700 on 8 December and no activity was observed during a drone overflight at 1400 on 9 December. The eruption lasted for 18 days. On 9 December the Aviation Color Code was lowered to Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale). Geologic Summary. The Reykjanes volcanic system at the SW tip of the Reykjanes Peninsula, where the Mid-Atlantic Ridge rises above sea level, comprises a broad area of postglacial basaltic crater rows and small shield volcanoes. The submarine Reykjaneshryggur volcanic system is contiguous with and is considered part of the Reykjanes volcanic system, which is the westernmost of a series of four closely-spaced en-echelon fissure systems that extend diagonally across the Reykjanes Peninsula. Most of the subaerial part of the system (also known as the Reykjanes/Svartsengi volcanic system) is covered by Holocene lavas. Subaerial eruptions have occurred in historical time during the 13th century at several locations on the NE-SW-trending fissure system, and numerous submarine eruptions dating back to the 12th century have been observed during historical time, some of which have formed ephemeral islands. Basaltic rocks of probable Holocene age have been recovered during dredging operations, and tephra deposits from earlier Holocene eruptions are preserved on the nearby Reykjanes Peninsula. Source: Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) http://en.vedur.is/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://en.vedur.is/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOM0nzjLNQ$> Ongoing Activity Copahue | Chile-Argentina | 37.856°S, 71.183°W | Summit elev. 2953 m The Servicio Nacional de GeologÃa y MinerÃa (SERNAGEOMIN) reported lower levels of activity at Copahue during 16-30 November. Sulfur dioxide emissions were low, averaging 529 ± 79 tons per day (t/d) with a maximum value of 907 t/d detected on 24 November. No thermal anomalies were identified in satellite images. Gas plumes rose 280 m above the crater rim and did not contain ash. No crater incandescence was observed at night. Deformation data showed a minor change from deflation to inflation. Seismic data indicated a more stable pattern. The water lake in the summit crater had returned and grown to 9,340 square meters by 30 November. In general activity levels were low. On 6 December the Alert Level was lowered to Green (the lowest level on a four-color scale). Geologic Summary. Volcán Copahue is an elongated composite cone constructed along the Chile-Argentina border within the 6.5 x 8.5 km wide Trapa-Trapa caldera that formed between 0.6 and 0.4 million years ago near the NW margin of the 20 x 15 km Pliocene Caviahue (Del Agrio) caldera. The eastern summit crater, part of a 2-km-long, ENE-WSW line of nine craters, contains a briny, acidic 300-m-wide crater lake (also referred to as El Agrio or Del Agrio) and displays intense fumarolic activity. Acidic hot springs occur below the eastern outlet of the crater lake, contributing to the acidity of the RÃo Agrio, and another geothermal zone is located within Caviahue caldera about 7 km NE of the summit. Infrequent mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded since the 18th century. Twentieth-century eruptions from the crater lake have ejected pyroclastic rocks and chilled liquid sulfur fragments. Source: Servicio Nacional de GeologÃa y MinerÃa (SERNAGEOMIN) http://www.sernageomin.cl/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.sernageomin.cl/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOMrEPBxqQ$> Ebeko | Russia | 50.686°N, 156.014°E | Summit elev. 1103 m The Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) reported that moderate activity was ongoing at Ebeko during 28 November-5 December. A weak thermal anomaly over the volcano was identified in satellite images on 5 December; weather conditions prevented views on the other days. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange (the third level on a four-color scale). Dates are UTC; specific events are in local time where noted. Geologic Summary. The flat-topped summit of the central cone of Ebeko volcano, one of the most active in the Kuril Islands, occupies the northern end of Paramushir Island. Three summit craters located along a SSW-NNE line form Ebeko volcano proper, at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Blocky lava flows extend west from Ebeko and SE from the neighboring Nezametnyi cone. The eastern part of the southern crater contains strong solfataras and a large boiling spring. The central crater is filled by a lake about 20 m deep whose shores are lined with steaming solfataras; the northern crater lies across a narrow, low barrier from the central crater and contains a small, cold crescentic lake. Historical activity, recorded since the late-18th century, has been restricted to small-to-moderate explosive eruptions from the summit craters. Intense fumarolic activity occurs in the summit craters, on the outer flanks of the cone, and in lateral explosion craters. Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/index_eng.php <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/index_eng.php__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeONRNDRRBA$> Great Sitkin | United States | 52.076°N, 176.13°W | Summit elev. 1740 m The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) reported that slow lava effusion continued to feed a thick lava flow in Great Sitkinâ??s summit crater during 3-10 December. Minor lava flow advancement along the N margins has gradually filled the summit crater. The local seismic network continued to detect small earthquakes associated with the ongoing eruption. Weather clouds obscured webcam and satellite views of the summit most of the week, though elevated surface temperatures were identified in satellite images during 3-4 December and minor steaming was visible in webcam images during 9-10 December. The Volcano Alert Level remained at Watch (the third level on a four-level scale) and the Aviation Color Code remained at Orange (the third color on a four-color scale). Geologic Summary. The Great Sitkin volcano forms much of the northern side of Great Sitkin Island. A younger volcano capped by a small, 0.8 x 1.2 km ice-filled summit caldera was constructed within a large late-Pleistocene or early Holocene scarp formed by massive edifice failure that truncated an older edifice and produced a submarine debris avalanche. Deposits from this and an even older debris avalanche from a source to the south cover a broad area of the ocean floor north of the volcano. The summit lies along the eastern rim of the younger collapse scarp. Deposits from an earlier caldera-forming eruption of unknown age cover the flanks of the island to a depth up to 6 m. The small younger caldera was partially filled by lava domes emplaced in 1945 and 1974, and five small older flank lava domes, two of which lie on the coastline, were constructed along northwest- and NNW-trending lines. Hot springs, mud pots, and fumaroles occur near the head of Big Fox Creek, south of the volcano. Eruptions have been recorded since the late-19th century. Source: US Geological Survey Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) https://avo.alaska.edu/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://avo.alaska.edu/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOMcEGhlSw$> Karymsky | Russia | 54.049°N, 159.443°E | Summit elev. 1513 m The Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) reported moderate levels of activity at Karymsky during 28 November-5 December. A thermal anomaly over the volcano was identified in satellite images on 3 December; weather conditions prevented views on the other days. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange (the third level on a four-color scale). Dates are based on UTC times; specific events are in local time where noted. Geologic Summary. Karymsky, the most active volcano of Kamchatka's eastern volcanic zone, is a symmetrical stratovolcano constructed within a 5-km-wide caldera that formed during the early Holocene. The caldera cuts the south side of the Pleistocene Dvor volcano and is located outside the north margin of the large mid-Pleistocene Polovinka caldera, which contains the smaller Akademia Nauk and Odnoboky calderas. Most seismicity preceding Karymsky eruptions originated beneath Akademia Nauk caldera, located immediately south. The caldera enclosing Karymsky formed about 7600-7700 radiocarbon years ago; construction of the stratovolcano began about 2000 years later. The latest eruptive period began about 500 years ago, following a 2300-year quiescence. Much of the cone is mantled by lava flows less than 200 years old. Historical eruptions have been vulcanian or vulcanian-strombolian with moderate explosive activity and occasional lava flows from the summit crater. Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/index_eng.php <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/index_eng.php__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeONRNDRRBA$> Lewotobi | Indonesia | 8.542°S, 122.775°E | Summit elev. 1703 m The Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG) reported that eruptive activity continued at Lewotobi Laki-laki during 4-10 December. The maximum heights of white-and-gray plumes decreased during the first part of the week, rising to 1.5 km, 1.2 km, and 500 m above the summit on 4, 5, and 6 December, respectively. The plumes drifted in multiple directions. On 6 December the exclusion zone was modified, prohibiting entry within a radius of 6 km from the center of Laki-laki and 7 km in a semicircle counterclockwise from the NE to the SW. White plumes rose 100-300 m above the summit and drifted W and NW on 7 and 10 December; no emissions were visible during 8-9 December. White-and-gray ash plumes rose as high as 2 km above the summit and drifted SW and W on 10 December. The Alert Level remained at 4 (on a scale of 1-4). Geologic Summary. The Lewotobi edifice in eastern Flores Island is composed of the two adjacent Lewotobi Laki-laki and Lewotobi Perempuan stratovolcanoes (the "husband and wife"). Their summits are less than 2 km apart along a NW-SE line. The conical Laki-laki to the NW has been frequently active during the 19th and 20th centuries, while the taller and broader Perempuan has had observed eruptions in 1921 and 1935. Small lava domes have grown during the 20th century in both of the summit craters, which are open to the north. A prominent cone, Iliwokar, occurs on the E flank of Perampuan. Source: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM) http://vsi.esdm.go.id/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://vsi.esdm.go.id/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOPUaV2HYg$> Manam | Papua New Guinea | 4.08°S, 145.037°E | Summit elev. 1807 m The Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) reported that ash emissions from Manam were identified in satellite images at 1330 and 2220 on 4 December drifting W and WNW at an altitude of 2.1 km (7,000 ft) a.s.l. Geologic Summary. The 10-km-wide island of Manam, lying 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea, is one of the country's most active volcanoes. Four large radial valleys extend from the unvegetated summit of the conical basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano to its lower flanks. These valleys channel lava flows and pyroclastic avalanches that have sometimes reached the coast. Five small satellitic centers are located near the island's shoreline on the northern, southern, and western sides. Two summit craters are present; both are active, although most observed eruptions have originated from the southern crater, concentrating eruptive products during much of the past century into the SE valley. Frequent eruptions, typically of mild-to-moderate scale, have been recorded since 1616. Occasional larger eruptions have produced pyroclastic flows and lava flows that reached flat-lying coastal areas and entered the sea, sometimes impacting populated areas. Source: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) http://www.bom.gov.au/aviation/volcanic-ash/darwin-va-advisory.shtml <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.bom.gov.au/aviation/volcanic-ash/darwin-va-advisory.shtml__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOOXnNQCqw$> Merapi | Indonesia | 7.54°S, 110.446°E | Summit elev. 2910 m The Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG) reported that the eruption at Merapi (on Java) continued during 29 November-5 December. Seismicity remained at high levels. The SW lava dome produced 84 lava avalanches that traveled as far as 1.8 km SW down the Bebeng drainage, eight that traveled SW down the Krasak drainage, and one that traveled 500 m W down the Senowo drainage. At 1642 on 5 December a pyroclastic flow descended 1.4 km along the Krasak drainage for nearly two minutes. Morphological changes to the SW lava dome resulted from continuing effusion and collapses of material. The SW dome grew larger and was an estimated 3,272,300 cubic meters based on an analysis of webcam images. The volume of the main crater was stable at an estimated 2,361,800 cubic meters. The Alert Level remained at 3 (on a scale of 1-4), and the public was warned to stay 3-7 km away from the summit, based on location. Geologic Summary. Merapi, one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta. It is the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain extending NNW to Ungaran volcano. Growth of Old Merapi during the Pleistocene ended with major edifice collapse perhaps about 2,000 years ago, leaving a large arcuate scarp cutting the eroded older Batulawang volcano. Subsequent growth of the steep-sided Young Merapi edifice, its upper part unvegetated due to frequent activity, began SW of the earlier collapse scarp. Pyroclastic flows and lahars accompanying growth and collapse of the steep-sided active summit lava dome have devastated cultivated lands on the western-to-southern flanks and caused many fatalities. Source: Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG) http://www.merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOO777hESg$> Nevado del Ruiz | Colombia | 4.892°N, 75.324°W | Summit elev. 5279 m The Servicio Geológico Colombianoâ??s (SGC) Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Manizales reported that eruptive activity at Nevado del Ruiz continued during 3-9 December. The number of seismic events associated with fluid movement decreased in number but increased in magnitude compared to the previous week. Additionally, the number of low-level, long-duration events decreased. Webcam images confirmed that higher-temperature ejecta was sometimes associated with seismic signals indicating pulsating ash emissions that rose as high as 2.5 km above the crater rim. A period of continuous ash emissions began on 29 November and ceased during the morning of 3 December. Seismicity associated with rock fracturing remained similar in number but slightly increased in magnitude compared to the previous week. The earthquakes were located below Arenas Crater, and mainly beneath the NE and SE flanks within a distance of 6 km, and had depths of 1-8 km. The largest earthquake, a M 2.5, was recorded at 0956 on 8 December located 2 km SE of the crater at a depth of 4 km. Low-to-moderate thermal anomalies on the crater floor were identified in satellite data when weather permitted. Gas plumes generally rose less than 1 km above the crater rim and drifted NW, W, and SW. Significant levels of sulfur dioxide emissions were detected in satellite data, similar to previous weeks. The Alert Level remained at Yellow (the second level on a four-level scale), and the public was warned to stay out of the restricted areas around Arenas Crater, not to spend long periods of time on the Murillo-Cerro Gualà Road, and to avoid drainages in the high-threat zones. Geologic Summary. Nevado del Ruiz is a broad, glacier-covered volcano in central Colombia that covers more than 200 km2. Three major edifices, composed of andesitic and dacitic lavas and andesitic pyroclastics, have been constructed since the beginning of the Pleistocene. The modern cone consists of a broad cluster of lava domes built within the caldera of an older edifice. The 1-km-wide, 240-m-deep Arenas crater occupies the summit. The prominent La Olleta pyroclastic cone located on the SW flank may also have been active in historical time. Steep headwalls of massive landslides cut the flanks. Melting of its summit icecap during historical eruptions, which date back to the 16th century, has resulted in devastating lahars, including one in 1985 that was South America's deadliest eruption. Source: Servicio Geológico Colombiano (SGC) https://www2.sgc.gov.co/volcanes/index.html <https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://www2.sgc.gov.co/volcanes/index.html__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOOwdxLNEw$> Nyamulagira | DR Congo | 1.408°S, 29.2°E | Summit elev. 3058 m A 7 December satellite image showed continuing activity at Nyamuragira. A thermal anomaly in the summit crater was visible, though weather and/or volcanic emissions obscured more than half of the crater. The most intense area was just NE of the central part of the crater. Geologic Summary. Africa's most active volcano, Nyamulagira (also known as Nyamuragira), is a massive high-potassium basaltic shield about 25 km N of Lake Kivu and 13 km NNW of the steep-sided Nyiragongo volcano. The summit is truncated by a small 2 x 2.3 km caldera that has walls up to about 100 m high. Documented eruptions have occurred within the summit caldera, as well as from the numerous flank fissures and cinder cones. A lava lake in the summit crater, active since at least 1921, drained in 1938, at the time of a major flank eruption. Recent lava flows extend down the flanks more than 30 km from the summit as far as Lake Kivu; extensive lava flows from this volcano have covered 1,500 km2 of the western branch of the East African Rift. Source: Copernicus https://www.copernicus.eu/en <https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://www.copernicus.eu/en__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOP2jAr37A$> Reventador | Ecuador | 0.077°S, 77.656°W | Summit elev. 3562 m The Instituto GeofÃsico-Escuela Politécnica Nacional (IG-EPN) reported that an eruption at Reventador was ongoing during 3-10 December. Seismicity was characterized by 13-77 daily explosions, long-period earthquakes, harmonic tremor, and tremor associated with emissions. Daily ash-and-gas plumes were observed in webcam images and/or satellite images rising 200-1,300 m above the crater and drifted SW, SSW, WNW, and NW. Incandescent material was observed in webcam images multiple times nightly descending the flanks as far as 1 km below the crater rim. Weather conditions occasionally obscured views. SecretarÃa de Gestión de Riesgos maintained the Alert Level at Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). Geologic Summary. Volcán El Reventador is the most frequently active of a chain of Ecuadorian volcanoes in the Cordillera Real, well east of the principal volcanic axis. The forested, dominantly andesitic stratovolcano has 4-km-wide avalanche scarp open to the E formed by edifice collapse. A young, unvegetated, cone rises from the amphitheater floor to a height comparable to the rim. It has been the source of numerous lava flows as well as explosive eruptions visible from Quito, about 90 km ESE. Frequent lahars in this region of heavy rainfall have left extensive deposits on the scarp slope. The largest recorded eruption took place in 2002, producing a 17-km-high eruption column, pyroclastic flows that traveled up to 8 km, and lava flows from summit and flank vents. Sources: Instituto GeofÃsico-Escuela Politécnica Nacional (IG-EPN) http://www.igepn.edu.ec/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.igepn.edu.ec/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOObiAXjDw$> ; SecretarÃa de Gestión de Riesgos (SGR) http://www.gestionderiesgos.gob.ec/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.gestionderiesgos.gob.ec/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeONx6bL8Rw$> Sabancaya | Peru | 15.787°S, 71.857°W | Summit elev. 5960 m The Instituto GeofÃsico del Perú (IGP) reported that the eruption at Sabancaya continued during 2-9 December with a daily average of seven explosions. Gas-and-ash plumes rose as high as 1.6 km above the summit and drifted less than 10 km NW and W. Thermal anomalies over the lava dome in the summit crater were identified in satellite data. Sulfur dioxide emissions were at low levels, averaging 379 tons per day. No significant deformation was detected. The Alert Level remained at Orange (the third level on a four-color scale) and the public was warned to stay outside of a 12 km radius from the summit. Geologic Summary. Sabancaya, located in the saddle NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca volcanoes, is the youngest of these volcanic centers and the only one to have erupted in historical time. The oldest of the three, Nevado Hualca Hualca, is of probable late-Pliocene to early Pleistocene age. The name Sabancaya (meaning "tongue of fire" in the Quechua language) first appeared in records in 1595 CE, suggesting activity prior to that date. Holocene activity has consisted of Plinian eruptions followed by emission of voluminous andesitic and dacitic lava flows, which form an extensive apron around the volcano on all sides but the south. Records of observed eruptions date back to 1750 CE. Source: Instituto GeofÃsico del Perú (IGP) http://www.igp.gob.pe/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.igp.gob.pe/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOOC07Hauw$> Sangay | Ecuador | 2.005°S, 78.341°W | Summit elev. 5286 m The Instituto GeofÃsico-Escuela Politécnica Nacional (IG-EPN) reported that eruptive activity continued at Sangay during 3-10 December. The seismic network recorded 271-325 daily explosions during 3-5 December and 8-81 daily explosions during 6-10 December. Gas-and-ash plumes visible in webcam and/or satellite images rose 700-900 m above the summit and drifted SW and W on 3, 5, and 7 December. Weather clouds obscured views of the volcano on the other days. SecretarÃa de Gestión de Riesgos (SGR) maintained the Alert Level at Yellow (the second highest level on a four-color scale). Geologic Summary. The isolated Sangay volcano, located east of the Andean crest, is the southernmost of Ecuador's volcanoes and its most active. The steep-sided, glacier-covered, dominantly andesitic volcano grew within the open calderas of two previous edifices which were destroyed by collapse to the east, producing large debris avalanches that reached the Amazonian lowlands. The modern edifice dates back to at least 14,000 years ago. It towers above the tropical jungle on the east side; on the other sides flat plains of ash have been eroded by heavy rains into steep-walled canyons up to 600 m deep. The earliest report of an eruption was in 1628. Almost continuous eruptions were reported from 1728 until 1916, and again from 1934 to the present. The almost constant activity has caused frequent changes to the morphology of the summit crater complex. Sources: Instituto GeofÃsico-Escuela Politécnica Nacional (IG-EPN) http://www.igepn.edu.ec/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.igepn.edu.ec/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOObiAXjDw$> ; SecretarÃa de Gestión de Riesgos (SGR) http://www.gestionderiesgos.gob.ec/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.gestionderiesgos.gob.ec/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeONx6bL8Rw$> Semeru | Indonesia | 8.108°S, 112.922°E | Summit elev. 3657 m The Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG) reported that eruptive activity continued at Semeru during 4-10 December with several daily eruptive events recorded by the seismic network. White-and-gray ash plumes that were sometimes dense rose 300-900 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions during 4-7 December. Emissions were not observed during 8-10 December. The Alert Level remained at 2 (the second lowest level on a scale of 1-4). The public was warned to stay at least 5 km away from the summit in all directions, 13 km from the summit to the SE, 500 m from the banks of the Kobokan drainage as far as 17 km from the summit, and to avoid other drainages including the Bang, Kembar, and Sat, due to lahar, avalanche, and pyroclastic flow hazards. Geologic Summary. Semeru, the highest volcano on Java, and one of its most active, lies at the southern end of a volcanic massif extending north to the Tengger caldera. The steep-sided volcano, also referred to as Mahameru (Great Mountain), rises above coastal plains to the south. Gunung Semeru was constructed south of the overlapping Ajek-ajek and Jambangan calderas. A line of lake-filled maars was constructed along a N-S trend cutting through the summit, and cinder cones and lava domes occupy the eastern and NE flanks. Summit topography is complicated by the shifting of craters from NW to SE. Frequent 19th and 20th century eruptions were dominated by small-to-moderate explosions from the summit crater, with occasional lava flows and larger explosive eruptions accompanied by pyroclastic flows that have reached the lower flanks of the volcano. Source: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM) http://vsi.esdm.go.id/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://vsi.esdm.go.id/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOPUaV2HYg$> Sheveluch | Russia | 56.653°N, 161.36°E | Summit elev. 3283 m The Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) reported that lava extrusion may have continued at Sheveluchâ??s â??300 years of RASâ?? dome on the SW flank of Old Sheveluch and at the dome at Young Sheveluch during 28 November-5 December. Daily thermal anomalies over the domes were identified in satellite images. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). Dates are based on UTC times; specific events are in local time where noted. Geologic Summary. The high, isolated massif of Sheveluch volcano (also spelled Shiveluch) rises above the lowlands NNE of the Kliuchevskaya volcano group. The 1,300 km3 andesitic volcano is one of Kamchatka's largest and most active volcanic structures, with at least 60 large eruptions during the Holocene. The summit of roughly 65,000-year-old Stary Shiveluch is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide late-Pleistocene caldera breached to the south. Many lava domes occur on its outer flanks. The Molodoy Shiveluch lava dome complex was constructed during the Holocene within the large open caldera; Holocene lava dome extrusion also took place on the flanks of Stary Shiveluch. Widespread tephra layers from these eruptions have provided valuable time markers for dating volcanic events in Kamchatka. Frequent collapses of dome complexes, most recently in 1964, have produced debris avalanches whose deposits cover much of the floor of the breached caldera. Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/index_eng.php <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/index_eng.php__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeONRNDRRBA$> Stromboli | Italy | 38.789°N, 15.213°E | Summit elev. 924 m Sezione di Catania - Osservatorio Etneo (INGV) reported that eruptive activity continued at Stromboli during 2-8 December. Webcam images showed Strombolian activity at four vents in Area N within the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco and at three vents in Area C-S (South-Central Crater) on the crater terrace. The vents in Area N continued to produce low-to-medium intensity explosions at a rate of 9-13 events per hour, ejecting lapilli and bombs less than 150 m above the vents. Spattering continued and was sometimes intense, especially on 2, 4, 6, and 8 December. Explosions at the vents in Area C-S ejected tephra more than 250 m above the vent at a rate of 3-8 events per hour. Intense spattering at Area N, especially at vent N2, was followed a lava overflow of the crater at 0309 on 4 December and the formation of a lava flow. The flow descended the upper-middle part of the Sciara del Fuoco and was active for about two hours, until 0545. Geologic Summary. Spectacular incandescent nighttime explosions at Stromboli have long attracted visitors to the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean" in the NE Aeolian Islands. This volcano has lent its name to the frequent mild explosive activity that has characterized its eruptions throughout much of historical time. The small island is the emergent summit of a volcano that grew in two main eruptive cycles, the last of which formed the western portion of the island. The Neostromboli eruptive period took place between about 13,000 and 5,000 years ago. The active summit vents are located at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a prominent scarp that formed about 5,000 years ago due to a series of slope failures which extends to below sea level. The modern volcano has been constructed within this scarp, which funnels pyroclastic ejecta and lava flows to the NW. Essentially continuous mild Strombolian explosions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded for more than a millennium. Source: Sezione di Catania - Osservatorio Etneo (INGV) http://www.ct.ingv.it/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.ct.ingv.it/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOMrmwFbMA$> Suwanosejima | Japan | 29.638°N, 129.714°E | Summit elev. 796 m The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) reported that eruptive activity at Suwanosejima's Ontake Crater continued during 2-9 December. Crater incandescence was observed nightly in webcam images. Eruptive events at 0901 and 1158 on 3 December produced ash plumes that rose 1.2 km above the crater rim and drifted S. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a 5-level scale) and the public was warned to stay at least 1.5 km away from the crater. Geologic Summary. The 8-km-long island of Suwanosejima in the northern Ryukyu Islands consists of an andesitic stratovolcano with two active summit craters. The summit is truncated by a large breached crater extending to the sea on the E flank that was formed by edifice collapse. One of Japan's most frequently active volcanoes, it was in a state of intermittent Strombolian activity from Otake, the NE summit crater, between 1949 and 1996, after which periods of inactivity lengthened. The largest recorded eruption took place in 1813-14, when thick scoria deposits covered residential areas, and the SW crater produced two lava flows that reached the western coast. At the end of the eruption the summit of Otake collapsed, forming a large debris avalanche and creating an open collapse scarp extending to the eastern coast. The island remained uninhabited for about 70 years after the 1813-1814 eruption. Lava flows reached the eastern coast of the island in 1884. Only about 50 people live on the island. Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOM1aK7WDA$> Taal | Philippines | 14.0106°N, 120.9975°E | Summit elev. 311 m The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) reported continuing eruptive activity at Taal during 4-10 December. Daily emissions rose 0.3-1.2 km above the crater rim and drifted SW and WSW. There were 2-5 periods of volcanic tremor during 5-8 December, with each period lasting 2-8 minutes. A volcanic earthquake was recorded on 8 December. Sulfur dioxide gas flux averaged 1,207-3,964 tonnes per day (t/d) on 4, 7, and 9 December. The Alert Level remained at 1 (on a scale of 0-5); PHIVOLCS reminded the public that the entire Taal Volcano Island was a Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ) and recommended that the Main Crater and areas along the Daang Kastila fissure should remain prohibited. Geologic Summary. Taal is one of the most active volcanoes in the Philippines and has produced some powerful eruptions. The 15 x 20 km Talisay (Taal) caldera is largely filled by Lake Taal, whose 267 km2 surface lies only 3 m above sea level. The maximum depth of the lake is 160 m, with several submerged eruptive centers. The 5-km-wide Volcano Island in north-central Lake Taal is the location of all observed eruptions. The island is composed of coalescing small stratovolcanoes, tuff rings, and scoria cones. Powerful pyroclastic flows and surges have caused many fatalities. Source: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/ <https://urldefense.com/v3/__http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!fuMwE_SMFT3scMY1Huwy2VEsQJqhIv7qz3N1YUtP55fU4ADaaAr6DXWhTD9ZVEn-J9WQr4JI08ULxZajeOPbnFqDNQ$> 5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5-5 ============================================================== Volcano Listserv is a collaborative venture among Arizona State University (ASU), Portland State University (PSU), the Global Volcanism Program (GVP) of the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History, and the International Association for Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI). 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