************************************************
GVP/USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report
1-7 November 2006
http://www.volcano.si.edu/reports/usgs/
************************************************
New Activity/Unrest: | Atka, USA | Canlaon, Philippines
Ongoing Activity: | Bulusan, Philippines | Colima, México | Karymsky,
Russia | Kilauea, USA | Langila, Papua New Guinea | Manam, Papua New
Guinea | Rabaul, Papua New Guinea | Ritter Island, Papua New Guinea |
Sakura-jima, Japan | Soufrière Hills, Montserrat | St. Helens, USA |
Suwanose-jima, Japan | Tongariro, New Zealand | Tungurahua, Ecuador |
Ubinas, Perú
New Activity/Unrest
ATKA Aleutian Islands, USA 52.381°N, 174.154°W; summit elev. 1,533 m
The number of daily earthquakes beneath Atka increased in July and
remained elevated into November. Episodes of volcanic tremor that first
occurred in September increased in number, strength, and duration in the
past several weeks. On 28 October, residents of Atka observed steam
emissions to many hundreds of meters above the summit. On 6 November,
the AVO raised the Aviation Level of Concern Color Code to Yellow and
the Volcanic Alert Level to Advisory
<http://www.avo.alaska.edu/color_codes.php> due to the high seismicity
and steam emissions.
Geologic Summary. The largest volcanic center in the central Aleutians,
Atka consists of a central shield and Pleistocene caldera ringed by 7 or
8 satellitic volcanoes. The most prominent of these are the post-caldera
cones of Korovin, Konia, Kliuchev, and Sarichef, some of which have been
active in historical time. Korovin, the most frequently active volcano
of the Atka volcanic center, contains a 1,533-m-high double summit with
two craters located along a NW-SE line. The NW summit has a small
crater, but the 1-km-wide crater of the SE cone has an unusual, open
cylindrical vent of widely variable depth that sometimes contains a
crater lake or a high magma column. A fresh-looking cinder cone lies on
the flank of partially dissected Konia volcano. Sarichef has a
symmetrical profile, and Korovin and Kliuchef are relatively uneroded
and the source of most if not all historical eruptions.
Source: Alaska Volcano Observatory http://www.avo.alaska.edu/
Atka Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1101-16-
CANLAON Philippines 10.41°N, 123.13°E; summit elev. 2,435 m
On 2 November, PHIVOLCS reported the lowering of the Alert Level for
Canlaon from 1 to 0. During 26 July-2 November, no ash explosions
occurred and steam emissions and seismicity were low.
Geologic Summary. Canlaon volcano, the most active of the central
Philippines, forms the highest point on the island of Negros, about 500
km ESE of Manila. The massive stratovolcano is dotted with
fissure-controlled pyroclastic cones and craters, many of which are
filled by lakes. The summit of Canlaon contains a broad northern crater
with a crater lake and a smaller, but higher, historically active crater
to the south. Historical eruptions, recorded since 1866, have typically
consisted of phreatic explosions of small-to-moderate size that produce
minor ashfalls near the volcano.
Source: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/
Canlaon Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0702-02=
Ongoing Activity
BULUSAN Luzon, Philippines 12.770°N, 124.05°E; summit elev. 1,565 m; All
times are local (= UTC + 8 hours)
On 1 November, PHIVOLCS reported two explosion-type earthquakes from
Bulusan at 1914 and 2345 on 31 October. Trace amounts of ashfall was
reported from neighborhoods in the municipalities of Casiguran,
Malapatan, and Irosin.
Geologic Summary. Luzon's southernmost volcano, Bulusan, was constructed
within the 11-km-diameter dacitic Irosin caldera, which was formed more
than 36,000 years ago. A broad, flat moat is located below the prominent
SW caldera rim; the NE rim is buried by the andesitic Bulusan complex.
Bulusan is flanked by several other large intracaldera lava domes and
cones, including the prominent Mount Jormajan lava dome on the SW flank
and Sharp Peak to the NE. The summit of Bulusan volcano is unvegetated
and contains a 300-m wide, 50-m-deep crater. Three small craters are
located on the SE flank. Many moderate explosive eruptions have been
recorded at Bulusan since the mid-19th century.
Source: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/
Bulusan Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0703-01=
COLIMA Western México 19.514°N, 103.62°W; summit elev. ~3,850 m
Based on reports from the Mexico City MWO and satellite imagery, the
Washington VAAC reported that an eruption plume from Colima on 6
November reached an altitude of 6.1 km (20,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted NE.
Geologic Summary. The Colima volcanic complex is the most prominent
volcanic center of the western Mexican Volcanic Belt. It consists of two
southward-younging volcanoes, Nevado de Colima (the 4,320 m high point
of the complex) on the N and the historically active Volcán de Colima on
the S. Volcán de Colima (also known as Volcán Fuego) is a youthful
stratovolcano constructed within a 5-km-wide caldera, breached to the S,
that has been the source of large debris avalanches. Major slope
failures have occurred repeatedly from both the Nevado and Colima cones,
and have produced a thick apron of debris-avalanche deposits on three
sides of the complex. Frequent historical eruptions date back to the
16th century. Occasional major explosive eruptions (most recently in
1913) have destroyed the summit and left a deep, steep-sided crater that
was slowly refilled and then overtopped by lava dome growth.
Source: Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center
http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/messages.html
Colima Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1401-04=
KARYMSKY Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia 54.05°N, 159.43°E; summit elev. 1,536 m
Activity at Karymsky continued during 26-29 October, with 150-550
shallow earthquakes occurring daily. Based on interpretations of seismic
data and satellite imagery, ash plumes may have reached altitudes of
2-4.8 km (6,600-15,700 ft) a.s.l. An ash cloud extended 70 km to the NE
on 28 October. A thermal anomaly in the crater was detected on 27-28 and
30-31 October and 2 November. Karymsky remained at Concern Color Code
Orange <http://www.avo.alaska.edu/color_codes.php>.
Geologic Summary. Karymsky, the most active volcano of Kamchatka's
eastern volcanic zone, is a symmetrical stratovolcano constructed within
a 5-km-wide caldera that formed about 7,600-7,700 radiocarbon years ago.
Construction of the Karymsky stratovolcano began about 2,000 years
later. The latest eruptive period began about 500 years ago, following a
2,300-year quiescence. Much of the cone is mantled by lava flows less
than 200 years old. Historical eruptions have been Vulcanian or
Vulcanian-Strombolian with moderate explosive activity and occasional
lava flows from the summit crater. Most seismicity preceding Karymsky
eruptions has originated beneath Akademia Nauk caldera, which is located
immediately S of Karymsky volcano and erupted simultaneously with
Karymsky in 1996.
Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team
http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/updates.shtml
Karymsky Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-13=
KILAUEA Hawaii, USA 19.43°N, 155.29°W; summit elev. 1,222 m
During 1-7 November, lava from Kilauea continued to flow off of a lava
delta into the ocean at the East Lae'apuki and East Ka'ili'ili entries.
Break-out lava flows were visible along the Campout flow on and at the
base of the Pulama pali. When weather permitted, incandescence was
visible from the East Pond and January vents, South Wall complex, and
Drainhole vent in Pu'u 'O'o's crater. The summit continued to slowly
inflate S of Halema'uma'u caldera.
Geologic Summary. Kilauea, one of five coalescing volcanoes that
comprise the island of Hawaii, is one of the world’s most active
volcanoes. Eruptions at Kilauea originate primarily from the summit
caldera or along one of the lengthy E and SW rift zones that extend from
the caldera to the sea. About 90% of the surface of Kilauea is formed by
lava flows less than about 1,100 years old; 70% of the volcano's surface
is younger than 600 years. The latest Kilauea eruption began in January
1983 along the E rift zone. This long-term ongoing eruption from Pu`u
`O`o-Kupaianaha has produced lava flows that have traveled 11-12 km from
the vents to the sea, paving broad areas on the S flank of Kilauea and
adding new land beyond the former coastline.
Source: US Geological Survey Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
http://volcano.wr.usgs.gov/hvostatus.php
Kilauea information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1302-01-
LANGILA New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea 5.53°S, 148.42°E; summit
elev. 1,330 m
During 1-2 November, eruptive activity at Langila's Crater 2 consisted
of continuous emissions of pale gray ash plumes that rose to an altitude
of 2.3 km (7,600 ft) a.s.l. and drifted N. On 1 November the plumes were
accompanied by forceful white vapor plumes, and roaring noises were
heard at regular intervals. Explosions of incandescent lava fragments
were also visible.
Geologic Summary. Langila, one of the most active volcanoes of New
Britain, consists of a group of four small overlapping composite cones
on the lower eastern flank of the extinct Talawe volcano. Talawe is the
highest volcano in the Cape Gloucester area of NW New Britain. A
rectangular, 2.5-km-long crater is breached widely to the SE; Langila
volcano was constructed NE of the breached crater of Talawe. An
extensive lava field reaches the coast on the N and NE sides of Langila.
Frequent mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions, sometimes accompanied by
lava flows, have been recorded since the 19th century from three active
craters at the summit of Langila. The youngest and smallest crater (no.
3 crater) was formed in 1960 and has a diameter of 150 m.
Source: Herman Patia, Rabaul Volcano Observatory
Langila Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0502-01=
MANAM offshore New Guinea, Papua New Guinea 4.10°S, 145.06°E; summit
elev. 1,807 m
PHIVOLCS reported that during 15-17 October, eruptive activity from
Manam consisted of mild emissions of steam and ash plumes. White vapor
plumes were visible from South Crater and intermittently from Main
Crater. Emissions from Main Crater were accompanied by gray ash plumes
on 19 October. Weak incandescence was noted during 15-17 and on 29 October.
Geologic Summary. The 10-km-wide island of Manam is one of Papua New
Guinea's most active volcanoes. Four large radial valleys extend from
the unvegetated summit of the conical 1,807-m-high stratovolcano to its
lower flanks. These "avalanche valleys," regularly spaced 90 degrees
apart, channel lava flows and pyroclastic avalanches that have sometimes
reached the coast. Five satellitic centers are located near the island's
shoreline. Two summit craters are present; both are active, although
most historical eruptions have originated from the southern crater,
concentrating eruptive products during the past century into the SE
avalanche valley. Frequent historical eruptions have been recorded since
1616.
Source: Herman Patia, Rabaul Volcano Observatory
Manam Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0501-02=
RABAUL New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea 4.271°S, 152.203°E; summit
elev. 688 m
Based on satellite imagery, the Darwin VAAC reported that a diffuse
plume from Rabaul drifted N on 1 November.
Geologic Summary. The low-lying Rabaul caldera on the tip of the Gazelle
Peninsula at the NE end of New Britain forms a broad sheltered harbor.
The outer flanks of the 688-m-high asymmetrical pyroclastic shield
volcano are formed by thick pyroclastic-flow deposits. The 8 x 14 km
caldera is widely breached on the E, where its floor is flooded by
Blanche Bay. Two major Holocene caldera-forming eruptions at Rabaul took
place as recently as 3,500 and 1,400 years ago. Three small
stratovolcanoes lie outside the northern and NE caldera rims.
Post-caldera eruptions built basaltic-to-dacitic pyroclastic cones on
the caldera floor near the NE and western caldera walls. Several of
these, including Vulcan cone, which was formed during a large eruption
in 1878, have produced major explosive activity during historical time.
A powerful explosive eruption in 1994 occurred simultaneously from
Vulcan and Tavurvur volcanoes and forced the temporary abandonment of
Rabaul city.
Source: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre
http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/advisories.shtml
Rabaul Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0502-14=
RITTER ISLAND Papua New Guinea 5.52°S, 148.121°E; summit elev. 140 m
On 17 October, a villager from Kampalap (on the E coast of Siassi
Island) reported unusual activity from Ritter Island to the RVO. The
activity consisted of small felt earthquakes followed by emissions of
white vapor and diffuse ash clouds. Rocks slid down the inner crater
wall. Ashfall, which the observer indicated was not from Langila, was
reported in Kampalap.
Geologic Summary. Prior to 1888, Ritter Island was a steep-sided nearly
circular island about 780-m high. Several historical explosive eruptions
had been recorded prior to 1888, when large-scale slope failure
destroyed the summit of the conical volcano, leaving an arcuate
140-m-high island remnant with a steep W-facing scarp. Devastating
tsunamis were produced by the collapse and swept the coast of Papua New
Guinea and offshore islands. Two minor post-collapse explosive
eruptions, during 1972 and 1974, occurred offshore within the largely
submarine 3.5 x 4.5 km breached depression formed by the collapse.
Source: Herman Patia, Rabaul Volcano Observatory
Ritter Island Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0501-07=
SAKURA-JIMA Kyushu, Japan 31.58°N, 130.67°E; summit elev. 1,117 m
Based on information from JMA, the Tokyo VAAC reported that on 4 and 5
November eruption plumes from Sakura-jima reached altitudes of 2.1-2.4
km (7,000-8,000 ft) a.s.l. Plumes drifted NE, SE, and E.
Geologic Summary. Sakura-jima, one of Japan's most active volcanoes, is
a post-caldera cone of the Aira caldera at the northern half of
Kagoshima Bay. Eruption of the voluminous Ito pyroclastic flow was
associated with the formation of the 17 x 23-km-wide Aira caldera about
22,000 years ago. The construction of Sakura-jima began about 13,000
years ago and built an island that was finally joined to the Osumi
Peninsula during the major explosive and effusive eruption of 1914.
Activity at the Kita-dake summit cone ended about 4,850 years ago, after
which eruptions took place at Minami-dake. Frequent historical
eruptions, recorded since the 8th century, have deposited ash on
Kagoshima, one of Kyushu's largest cities, located across Kagoshima Bay
only 8 km from the summit. The largest historical eruption took place
during 1471-76.
Source: Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center
http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/OTH/JP/messages.html
Sakura-jima Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/gvp/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0802-08=
SOUFRIÈRE HILLS Montserrat, West Indies 16.72°N, 62.18°W; summit elev.
1,052 m
During 27 October-3 November, lava-dome growth at Soufrière Hills
continued and was concentrated on the E and NE part of the edifice.
Rockfalls and small pyroclastic flows originating from the active lobe
traveled down the NE flank. Aerial observation confirmed the existence
of a large, shear, E-facing lobe on the NE side of the dome.
Ash-and-steam venting continued.
Based on information from the MVO, satellite imagery, and the Piarco
MWO, the Washington VAAC reported that ash and gas emissions during 1-6
November produced mainly diffuse plumes that drifted NW, W, and SW.
Plumes reached altitudes of 2.7 km (9,000 ft) a.s.l. on 3 November. A
hotspot was detected on satellite imagery on 3 and 5 November.
Geologic Summary. The complex, dominantly andesitic Soufrière Hills
volcano occupies the southern half of the island of Montserrat. The
summit area consists primarily of a series of lava domes emplaced along
an ESE-trending zone. English's Crater, a 1-km-wide crater breached
widely to the east, was formed during an eruption about 4000 years ago
in which the summit collapsed, producing a large submarine debris
avalanche. Block-and-ash flow and surge deposits associated with dome
growth predominate in flank deposits at Soufrière Hills. Non-eruptive
seismic swarms occurred at 30-year intervals in the 20th century, but
with the exception of a 17th-century eruption that produced the Castle
Peak lava dome, no historical eruptions were recorded on Montserrat
until 1995. Long-term small-to-moderate ash eruptions beginning in that
year were later accompanied by lava-dome growth and pyroclastic flows
that forced evacuation of the southern half of the island and ultimately
destroyed the capital city of Plymouth, causing major social and
economic disruption.
Sources: Montserrat Volcano Observatory http://www.mvo.ms/,
Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center
http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/messages.html
Soufrière Hills Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1600-05=
ST. HELENS Washington, USA 46.20°N, 122.18°W; summit elev. 2,549 m
Data from deformation-monitoring instruments showed that during 1-7
November the lava dome at Mount St. Helens continued to grow. Inclement
weather prohibited visual observation during most of the reporting
period. On 5 and 6 November, acoustic flow monitors recorded
rain-induced debris flows within the crater and in the upper part of the
North and South Fork Toutle River valleys.
Geologic Summary. Prior to 1980, Mount St. Helens formed a conical,
youthful volcano sometimes known as the Fuji-san of America. During the
1980 eruption the upper 400 m of the summit was removed by slope
failure, leaving a 2 x 3.5 km horseshoe-shaped crater now partially
filled by a lava dome. Mount St. Helens was formed during nine eruptive
periods beginning about 40-50,000 years ago, and has been the most
active volcano in the Cascade Range during the Holocene. The modern
edifice was constructed during the last 2,200 years, when the volcano
produced basaltic as well as andesitic and dacitic products from summit
and flank vents. Historical eruptions in the 19th century originated
from the Goat Rocks area on the N flank, and were witnessed by early
settlers.
Source: US Geological Survey Cascades Volcano Observatory
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/MSH/CurrentActivity/framework.html
St. Helens Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1201-05-
SUWANOSE-JIMA Ryukyu Islands, Japan 29.53°N, 129.72°E; summit elev. 799 m
Based on satellite imagery and information from JMA, the Tokyo VAAC
reported that during 4-6 November eruption plumes from Suwanose-jima
reached altitudes of 1.2 km (4,000 ft) a.s.l. The plumes drifted E and SW.
Geologic Summary. The 8-km-long, spindle-shaped island of Suwanose-jima
in the northern Ryukyu Islands consists of an andesitic stratovolcano
with two historically active summit craters. Only about 50 persons live
on the sparsely populated island. The summit of the volcano is truncated
by a large breached crater extending to the sea on the E flank that was
formed by edifice collapse. Suwanose-jima, one of Japan’s most
frequently active volcanoes, was in a state of intermittent strombolian
activity from On-take, the NE summit crater, that began in 1949 and
lasted nearly a half century. The largest historical eruption took place
in 1813-14, when thick scoria deposits blanketed residential areas,
after which the island was uninhabited for around 70 years. The SW
crater produced lava flows that reached the western coast in 1813, and
lava flows reached the eastern coast of the island in 1884.
Source: Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center
http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/OTH/JP/messages.html
Suwanose-jima Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0802-03=
TONGARIRO New Zealand 39.13°S, 175.642°E; summit elev. 1,978 m
Seismic activity from Tongariro continued to remain elevated during 27
July-1 November. Temperature and gas-concentration measurements from the
summit remained normal. The Volcanic Alert Level remained at Level 1
(some signs of unrest).
Geologic Summary. Tongariro is a large andesitic volcanic massif,
located immediately NE of Ruapehu volcano, that is composed of more than
a dozen composite cones constructed over a period of 275,000 years.
Vents along a NE-trending zone extending from Saddle Cone (below Ruapehu
volcano) to Te Mari crater (including vents at the present-day location
of Ngauruhoe) were active during a several hundred year long period
around 10,000 years ago, producing the largest known eruptions at the
Tongariro complex during the Holocene. The youngest cone of the complex,
Ngauruhoe, has grown to become the highest peak of the massif since its
birth about 2500 years ago. The symmetrical, steep-sided Ngauruhoe,
along with its neighbor Ruapehu to the south, have been New Zealand's
most active volcanoes during historical time.
Source: GeoNet Data Centre http://data.geonet.org.nz/geonews/sab/
Tongariro Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0401-08=
TUNGURAHUA Ecuador 1.47°S, 78.44°W; summit elev. 5,023 m
IG reported that during 1-5 November, emissions from Tungurahua produced
plumes consisting of steam, gas, and moderate ash that reached altitudes
of 1-3 km (3,300-9,800 ft) a.s.l. and drifted in multiple directions. On
6 November, ash plumes rose to 6 km (19,700 ft) a.s.l. and drifted NW.
Ashfall was reported from several towns downwind of the plumes on 5 and
6 November, including Bilbao (8 km W), Cotaló (13 km NW), and Manzano (8
km SW). On 2 November incandescent blocks were expelled from the summit
and rolled about 700 m down the W and E flanks. Nighttime incandescence
was observed during 2-4 November.
Geologic Summary. The steep-sided Tungurahua stratovolcano towers more
than 3 km above its northern base. It sits ~140 km S of Quito, Ecuador’s
capital city, and is one of Ecuador's most active volcanoes. Historical
eruptions have been restricted to the summit crater. They have been
accompanied by strong explosions and sometimes by pyroclastic flows and
lava flows that reached populated areas at the volcano's base. The last
major eruption took place from 1916 to 1918, although minor activity
continued until 1925. The latest eruption began in October 1999 and
prompted temporary evacuation of the town of Baños on the N side of the
volcano.
Source: Instituto Geofísico-Escuela Poltécnica Nacional
http://www.igepn.edu.ec/
Tungurahua Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-08=
UBINAS Perú 16.355°S, 70.903°W; summit elev. 5,672 m
Based on pilot reports and satellite imagery, the Buenos Aires VAAC
reported continuous emissions from Ubinas on 3, 5, and 7 November. Ash
plumes rose to 6.1-7.9 km (20,000-26,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted SW, N,
and S, respectively.
Geologic Summary. A small, 1.2-km-wide caldera that cuts the top of
Ubinas, Peru's most active volcano, gives it a truncated appearance.
Ubinas is the northernmost of three young volcanoes located along a
regional structural lineament about 50 km behind the main volcanic front
of Peru. The upper slopes of the stratovolcano, composed primarily of
Pleistocene andesitic lava flows, steepen to nearly 45 degrees. The
steep-walled, 150-m-deep summit caldera contains an ash cone with a
500-m-wide funnel-shaped vent that is 200 m deep. Debris-avalanche
deposits from the collapse of the SE flank of Ubinas extend 10 km from
the volcano. Widespread plinian pumice-fall deposits from Ubinas include
some of Holocene age. Holocene lava flows are visible on the volcano's
flanks, but historical activity, documented since the 16th century, has
consisted of intermittent minor explosive eruptions.
Source: Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center
http://www.bom.gov.au/products/Volc_ash_recent.shtml
Ubinas Information from the Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1504-02
*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++*
*Sally Kuhn Sennert*
*Global Volcanism Program*
Smithsonian Institution
National Museum of Natural History MRC-119
Department of Mineral Sciences
Washington, D.C., 20560
http://www.volcano.si.edu/reports/usgs/index.cfm
Phone: 202.633.1805
Fax: 202.357.2476
<http://www.volcano.si.edu/reports/usgs/>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
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