On 05/29/2018 04:37 AM, Mike Rapoport wrote:
> Hi,
>
> From 2d3ec7ea101a66b1535d5bec4acfc1e0f737fd53 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
> From: Mike Rapoport <rppt@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx>
> Date: Tue, 29 May 2018 14:12:39 +0300
> Subject: [PATCH] docs/admin-guide/mm: add high level concepts overview
>
> The are terms that seem obvious to the mm developers, but may be somewhat
There are [or: These are]
> obscure for, say, less involved readers.
>
> The concepts overview can be seen as an "extended glossary" that introduces
> such terms to the readers of the kernel documentation.
>
> Signed-off-by: Mike Rapoport <rppt@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx>
> ---
> Documentation/admin-guide/mm/concepts.rst | 222 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
> Documentation/admin-guide/mm/index.rst | 5 +
> 2 files changed, 227 insertions(+)
> create mode 100644 Documentation/admin-guide/mm/concepts.rst
>
> diff --git a/Documentation/admin-guide/mm/concepts.rst b/Documentation/admin-guide/mm/concepts.rst
> new file mode 100644
> index 0000000..291699c
> --- /dev/null
> +++ b/Documentation/admin-guide/mm/concepts.rst
> @@ -0,0 +1,222 @@
> +.. _mm_concepts:
> +
> +=================
> +Concepts overview
> +=================
> +
> +The memory management in Linux is complex system that evolved over the
is a complex
> +years and included more and more functionality to support variety of
support a variety of
> +systems from MMU-less microcontrollers to supercomputers. The memory
> +management for systems without MMU is called ``nommu`` and it
without an MMU
> +definitely deserves a dedicated document, which hopefully will be
> +eventually written. Yet, although some of the concepts are the same,
> +here we assume that MMU is available and CPU can translate a virtual
that an MMU and a CPU
> +address to a physical address.
> +
> +.. contents:: :local:
> +
> +Virtual Memory Primer
> +=====================
> +
> +The physical memory in a computer system is a limited resource and
> +even for systems that support memory hotplug there is a hard limit on
> +the amount of memory that can be installed. The physical memory is not
> +necessary contiguous, it might be accessible as a set of distinct
Change comma to semi-colon or period (and if latter, s/it/It/).
> +address ranges. Besides, different CPU architectures, and even
> +different implementations of the same architecture have different view
views of
> +how these address ranges defined.
> +
> +All this makes dealing directly with physical memory quite complex and
> +to avoid this complexity a concept of virtual memory was developed.
> +
> +The virtual memory abstracts the details of physical memory from the
virtual memory {system, implementation} abstracts
> +application software, allows to keep only needed information in the
software, allowing the VM to keep only needed information in the
> +physical memory (demand paging) and provides a mechanism for the
> +protection and controlled sharing of data between processes.
> +
> +With virtual memory, each and every memory access uses a virtual
> +address. When the CPU decodes the an instruction that reads (or
> +writes) from (or to) the system memory, it translates the `virtual`
> +address encoded in that instruction to a `physical` address that the
> +memory controller can understand.
> +
> +The physical system memory is divided into page frames, or pages. The
> +size of each page is architecture specific. Some architectures allow
> +selection of the page size from several supported values; this
> +selection is performed at the kernel build time by setting an
> +appropriate kernel configuration option.
> +
> +Each physical memory page can be mapped as one or more virtual
> +pages. These mappings are described by page tables that allow
> +translation from virtual address used by programs to real address in
from a virtual address to {a, the} real address in
> +the physical memory. The page tables organized hierarchically.
tables are organized
> +
> +The tables at the lowest level of the hierarchy contain physical
> +addresses of actual pages used by the software. The tables at higher
> +levels contain physical addresses of the pages belonging to the lower
> +levels. The pointer to the top level page table resides in a
> +register. When the CPU performs the address translation, it uses this
> +register to access the top level page table. The high bits of the
> +virtual address are used to index an entry in the top level page
> +table. That entry is then used to access the next level in the
> +hierarchy with the next bits of the virtual address as the index to
> +that level page table. The lowest bits in the virtual address define
> +the offset inside the actual page.
> +
> +Huge Pages
> +==========
> +
> +The address translation requires several memory accesses and memory
> +accesses are slow relatively to CPU speed. To avoid spending precious
> +processor cycles on the address translation, CPUs maintain a cache of
> +such translations called Translation Lookaside Buffer (or
> +TLB). Usually TLB is pretty scarce resource and applications with
> +large memory working set will experience performance hit because of
> +TLB misses.
> +
> +Many modern CPU architectures allow mapping of the memory pages
> +directly by the higher levels in the page table. For instance, on x86,
> +it is possible to map 2M and even 1G pages using entries in the second
> +and the third level page tables. In Linux such pages are called
> +`huge`. Usage of huge pages significantly reduces pressure on TLB,
> +improves TLB hit-rate and thus improves overall system performance.
> +
> +There are two mechanisms in Linux that enable mapping of the physical
> +memory with the huge pages. The first one is `HugeTLB filesystem`, or
> +hugetlbfs. It is a pseudo filesystem that uses RAM as its backing
> +store. For the files created in this filesystem the data resides in
> +the memory and mapped using huge pages. The hugetlbfs is described at
> +:ref:`Documentation/admin-guide/mm/hugetlbpage.rst <hugetlbpage>`.
> +
> +Another, more recent, mechanism that enables use of the huge pages is
> +called `Transparent HugePages`, or THP. Unlike the hugetlbfs that
> +requires users and/or system administrators to configure what parts of
> +the system memory should and can be mapped by the huge pages, THP
> +manages such mappings transparently to the user and hence the
> +name. See
> +:ref:`Documentation/admin-guide/mm/transhuge.rst <admin_guide_transhuge>`
> +for more details about THP.
> +
> +Zones
> +=====
> +
> +Often hardware poses restrictions on how different physical memory
> +ranges can be accessed. In some cases, devices cannot perform DMA to
> +all the addressable memory. In other cases, the size of the physical
> +memory exceeds the maximal addressable size of virtual memory and
> +special actions are required to access portions of the memory. Linux
> +groups memory pages into `zones` according to their possible
> +usage. For example, ZONE_DMA will contain memory that can be used by
> +devices for DMA, ZONE_HIGHMEM will contain memory that is not
> +permanently mapped into kernel's address space and ZONE_NORMAL will
> +contain normally addressed pages.
> +
> +The actual layout of the memory zones is hardware dependent as not all
> +architectures define all zones, and requirements for DMA are different
> +for different platforms.
> +
> +Nodes
> +=====
> +
> +Many multi-processor machines are NUMA - Non-Uniform Memory Access -
> +systems. In such systems the memory is arranged into banks that have
> +different access latency depending on the "distance" from the
> +processor. Each bank is referred as `node` and for each node Linux
is referred to as a `node`
> +constructs an independent memory management subsystem. A node has it's
its
> +own set of zones, lists of free and used pages and various statistics
> +counters. You can find more details about NUMA in
> +:ref:`Documentation/vm/numa.rst <numa>` and in
> +:ref:`Documentation/admin-guide/mm/numa_memory_policy.rst <numa_memory_policy>`.
> +
> +Page cache
> +==========
> +
> +The physical memory is volatile and the common case for getting data
> +into the memory is to read it from files. Whenever a file is read, the
> +data is put into the `page cache` to avoid expensive disk access on
> +the subsequent reads. Similarly, when one writes to a file, the data
> +is placed in the page cache and eventually gets into the backing
> +storage device. The written pages are marked as `dirty` and when Linux
> +decides to reuse them for other purposes, it makes sure to synchronize
> +the file contents on the device with the updated data.
> +
> +Anonymous Memory
> +================
> +
> +The `anonymous memory` or `anonymous mappings` represent memory that
> +is not backed by a filesystem. Such mappings are implicitly created
> +for program's stack and heap or by explicit calls to mmap(2) system
> +call. Usually, the anonymous mappings only define virtual memory areas
> +that the program is allowed to access. The read accesses will result
> +in creation of a page table entry that references a special physical
> +page filled with zeroes. When the program performs a write, regular
write, a regular
> +physical page will be allocated to hold the written data. The page
> +will be marked dirty and if the kernel will decide to repurpose it,
> +the dirty page will be swapped out.
> +
> +Reclaim
> +=======
> +
> +Throughout the system lifetime, a physical page can be used for storing
> +different types of data. It can be kernel internal data structures,
> +DMA'able buffers for device drivers use, data read from a filesystem,
> +memory allocated by user space processes etc.
> +
> +Depending on the page usage it is treated differently by the Linux
> +memory management. The pages that can be freed at any time, either
> +because they cache the data available elsewhere, for instance, on a
> +hard disk, or because they can be swapped out, again, to the hard
> +disk, are called `reclaimable`. The most notable categories of the
> +reclaimable pages are page cache and anonymous memory.
> +
> +In most cases, the pages holding internal kernel data and used as DMA
> +buffers cannot be repurposed, and they remain pinned until freed by
> +their user. Such pages are called `unreclaimable`. However, in certain
> +circumstances, even pages occupied with kernel data structures can be
> +reclaimed. For instance, in-memory caches of filesystem metadata can
> +be re-read from the storage device and therefore it is possible to
> +discard them from the main memory when system is under memory
> +pressure.
> +
> +The process of freeing the reclaimable physical memory pages and
> +repurposing them is called (surprise!) `reclaim`. Linux can reclaim
> +pages either asynchronously or synchronously, depending on the state
> +of the system. When system is not loaded, most of the memory is free
When {the, a} system
> +and allocation request will be satisfied immediately from the free
requests
or
and an allocation request
> +pages supply. As the load increases, the amount of the free pages goes
> +down and when it reaches a certain threshold (high watermark), an
> +allocation request will awaken the ``kswapd`` daemon. It will
> +asynchronously scan memory pages and either just free them if the data
> +they contain is available elsewhere, or evict to the backing storage
> +device (remember those dirty pages?). As memory usage increases even
> +more and reaches another threshold - min watermark - an allocation
> +will trigger the `direct reclaim`. In this case allocation is stalled
s/the//
> +until enough memory pages are reclaimed to satisfy the request.
> +
> +Compaction
> +==========
> +
> +As the system runs, tasks allocate and free the memory and it becomes
> +fragmented. Although with virtual memory it is possible to present
> +scattered physical pages as virtually contiguous range, sometimes it is
> +necessary to allocate large physically contiguous memory areas. Such
> +need may arise, for instance, when a device driver requires large
requires a large
> +buffer for DMA, or when THP allocates a huge page. Memory `compaction`
> +addresses the fragmentation issue. This mechanism moves occupied pages
> +from the lower part of a memory zone to free pages in the upper part
> +of the zone. When a compaction scan is finished free pages are grouped
> +together at the beginning of the zone and allocations of large
> +physically contiguous areas become possible.
> +
> +Like reclaim, the compaction may happen asynchronously in ``kcompactd``
in the
> +daemon or synchronously as a result of memory allocation request.
of a memory allocation request.
> +
> +OOM killer
> +==========
> +
> +It may happen, that on a loaded machine memory will be exhausted. When
no comma.
> +the kernel detects that the system runs out of memory (OOM) it invokes
> +`OOM killer`. Its mission is simple: all it has to do is to select a
> +task to sacrifice for the sake of the overall system health. The
> +selected task is killed in a hope that after it exits enough memory
> +will be freed to continue normal operation.
thanks for doing this overview.
--
~Randy
